Elections Without Democracy: Thinking About Hybrid Regimes

Larry Diamond

Journal of Democracy, April 2002

Appendix Table 1

 

Election Results and Political Features of

Selected Hybrid Regimes, 1990-2001

 

 

Freedom House Ranking

(top country line is for 2002)

Percent of legislative seats won by ruling party

(*= no ruling party,

¨= boycotted by main opposition party or force)

Percent of vote won by ruling party presidential candidate

Years in Power of incumbent ruler[1]

Algeria  

1999

1997

1995

5.5

5.5

6

6

 

--

41.05%

--

 

73.8%

--

61%

3

Angola  

1992

6

6

 

58.64%

 

49.57%

23

Antigua and Barbuda

1999

1994

1989

3

 

3.5

3.5

2.5

 

 

70.59%

64.71%

88.24%

 

 

--

--

--

8

Armenia

1999

1998

1996

1995

4

4

4

4.5

4

 

43.51%

--

--

63.16%

 

--

59.5%

52%

--

4

Azerbaijan

2000

1998

1995/6

1993

1992

5.5

5.5

5

6

6

5

 

60.00%

--

92.00

--

--

 

--

76.1%

--

99%

>60%

9

Belarus

2001

2000

1995

1994

6

6

6

5

4

 

--

 

 

--

 

75.6%

--

--

>80%

8

Burkina-Faso

1998

1997

1992

4

4.5

4.5

5

 

--

90.99%

72.90%

 

87.5%

--

--

15

Cambodia

1998

1993

5.5

6

4.5

 

52.46%[2]

*

 

--

--

10

Cameroon

1997

1992

6

6

5.5

 

60.56%

48.89%

 

92.6%¨

39.98%

20

Chad

2001

1997

1996

5.5

5.5

5.5

5.5

 

--

52.00%

 

63.2%

--

69.1%

12

Comoros

1996

1993

5

4

4

 

90.70%¨

57.14%

 

64%

--

3

Congo (Brazzaville)

1993

1992

4.5

 

3

3

 

 

52.00%

--

 

 

--

61%

5

Cote D'Ivoire

2000

1995

1990

4.5

5.5

5.5

5

 

48.98%

84.57%

93.14%

 

59.4%

>90%

81.7%

2

Djibouti

1999

1997

1993

4.5

5.5

6

4.5

 

--

 

 

 

74.44%

--

60.76%

3

Egypt

2000

1999

1995

1993

1990

6

5.5

6

6

6

4

 

85.46%[3]

--

69.82%

--

76.65%

 

--

majority (ref)

--

95% (ref)

--

21

Ethiopia

2000

1994

5.5

5

5.5

 

87.57%

88.30%

 

--

--

7

Gabon

2001

1998

1996/7

1993

1990

4.5

4.5

4.5

4.5

4.5

4

 

 

--

68.33%¨

--

52.50%

 

--

66.6%

--

51.18%

--

35

Gambia

2002

2001

1997

1996

1992

5

5

5

6.5

6.5

1.5

 

84.91%

--

66.00%

--

69.44%[4]

 

--

52.96%

--

56%

58.5%

8

Guinea

1998

1995

5.5

5.5

5.5

 

--

62.28%

 

56.1%

--

18

Indonesia

1999

1997

1992

3.5

4

6

5.5

 

30.80%

76.47%

70.25%

 

--

--

--

1 (2)

Iran

2001

2000

1997

6

6

6

6.5

 

--

70.00%

--

 

78.3%

--

69%

5 or 13[5]

Kazakhstan

1999

1995

1994

1991

5.5

5.5

5.5

5.5

 

29.87%[6]

35.82%

18.64%[7]

--

 

79.8%

95% (ref)

--

99%

11

Kenya

1997

1992

5.5

6

4.5

 

50.89%

53.19%

 

41%

36.4%

24

Liberia

1997

6

4.5

 

77.78%

 

75.3%

5

Malaysia

1999

1995

1990

5

5

4.5

4.5

 

76.68%

84.38%

70.56%

 

--

--

--

21

Mauritania

2001

1997

1996

1992

5

5

6

6

6.5

 

79.01%

--

88.61%

84.81%

 

--

90.2%¨

--

--

18

Mexico

2000

1997

1994

2.5

2.5

3.5

4

 

43.31%

50.32%

 

43.43%

--

50.18%

2 (6)

Morocco

1997

1993

5

5

5

 

17.54%*

16.21%*

 

--

--

3 (38)

Niger

1999

1996

1995

1993

4

5

6

4

3.5

 

45.78%

70%

48.19%[8]

34.94%

 

 

52.22%

--

54%

3

Peru

2001

2000

1995

1992

1990

2

2

3

4.5

5.5

3.5

 

34.17%

43.33%

55.83%

55%

 

53.08

74.33

64.4%

 

>55%

1

Russia

2000

1999

1996

1995

5

5

4.5

3.5

3.5

 

--

16.22%[9]

--

12.22%[10]

 

53.44%

--

53.83%

--

2 (9)

Senegal

2001

2000

1998

1993

3.5

3.5

3.5

4

4.5

 

74.17%

--

66.43%

70.00%

 

--

58.49%

--

58.4%

2

Singapore

2001

1999

1997

1993

1991

5

5

5

5

5

4

 

97.62%

--

97.59%

--

95.06%

 

--

???

--

59%

--

11

Tajikistan

2000

1999

1995

1994

6

6

6

7

7

 

47.62%

--

55.25%¨

--

 

--

97%

--

58%

10

Tanzania

2000

1995

1990

4

4

5

5.5

 

89.05%

77.82%

61.51%

 

74.91%

61.8%

 

7

Togo

1999

1998

1994

1993

5

5

5.5

5.5

6

 

97.53%

--

51.85%[11]

--

 

--

51.2%

--

96.49%

35

Tunisia  

1999

1994

5.5

5.5

5.5

 

81.32%

88.34%

 

98.01%

99%

15

Uganda[12]

2001

1996

1994

5.5

5.5

4

5

 

(majority)*

98.19%*

53.27%*

 

69.33%

74%

 

16

Ukraine

1999

1998

1994

4

3.5

3.5

3.5

 

--

*

*

 

56.25%

--

51.24%

8

Yemen

1999

1997

1993

6

5.5

5.5

4.5

 

--

62.13%

40.86%

 

96.3%

--

--

12

Yugoslavia

2000

1996

1992

3

4

6

5.5

 

38.20%

46.38%

52.90%

 

51.71%

--

--

2

Zambia

2001

1996

1991

4.5

4.5

4.5

2.5

 

43.40%

87.33%¨

 

 

28%

70%¨

85%

0 (10)

Zimbabwe

2000

1996

1995

1990

6

5.5

5

5

5

 

51.67%

--

98.33%

96.67%

 

--

>90%

--

78%

22

 

 



Prepared with the research assistance of Terrence Blackburne.

* denotes no clear ruling party

¨ boycotted by principal opposition party or force

[1] Partial years are rounded up.  Figures in parantheses are for the previous ruler.

[2] The Cambodian People’s Party (CPP) is coded as the ruling party.

[3] The figure was 79.50% before defections to the ruling party.

[4] Percent of 36 elected, though the assembly should have had 50 members.

[5] Five years for President Mohammad Kathami, and 13 years for Supreme Religious Leader Ali Khameini

[6] Numerous independents supportive of the president were also elected.

[7] In addition, numerous supporters of the president were elected from the “state list” and from among independents.

[8] Percentage won by the ruling coalition, the Alliance of Forces for Change (AFC) backed by President Mahamane Ousmane

[9] Unity Bloc is coded as the party of the incumbent president, Vladimir Putin

[10] “Our Home is Russia,” the party of Prime Minister Chernomyrdin, was “the party of power.”

[11] The figure was 43.21% prior to defections to the ruling party.

[12] Since President Yoweri Museveni and his National Resistance Movement (NRM) came to power in 1986, political parties have been banned in Uganda.  Figures for legislative elections are the reported proportion of candidates elected who support the president or are affiliated with the NRM.